Imbalances in fats and essential fatty acids

Trans fats are bad fats, with no health benefits whatsoever:

• They are found in processed or fried foods and certain vegetable oils, such as hydrogenated vegetable oils
• Trans fats compete with, damage and block the conversion of healthy Essential Fatty Acids such as GLA, DHA, EPA and prostaglandins, preventing them from doing their vital brain-protecting workMolero, P., De Lorenzi, F., Gędek, A., Strater, C., Popescu, E., Ortuño, F., Van Der Does, W., Martínez-González, M.A. and Molendijk, M.L. (2025) ‘Diet quality and depression risk: a systematic review and meta-analysis of prospective studies’, Journal of Affective Disorders, 382, pp. 154–166.
• Trans fats are implicated in Alzheimer’s disease by contributing to beta amyloid production in the brainGrimm, M.O.W., Rothhaar, T.L., Grösgen, S., Burg, V.K., Hundsdörfer, B., Haupenthal, V.J., Friess, P., Kins, S., Grimm, H.S. and Hartmann, T. (2012) ‘Trans fatty acids enhance amyloidogenic processing of the Alzheimer amyloid precursor protein (APP)’, The Journal of Nutritional Biochemistry, 23(10), pp. 1214–1223.

• The saturated fat from the dairy and meat of grass fed animals, free range chicken, game, coconut oil, avocados, nuts and dark chocolate are healthy sources of saturated fats, while the saturated fats from processed meats, or dairy, eggs and meat from industrially raised animals tend to be unhealthy
• While some saturated fats are important for mental health, excessive levels can be correlated with cognitive decline and depressionE. Barnard, N.D., Bunner, A.E. and Agarwal, U. (2014) ‘Saturated and trans fats and dementia: a systematic review’, Neurobiology of Aging, 35(S2), pp. S65–S73.
• Saturated fats increase cholesterol, while unsaturated fats reduce it

Role of saturated fats in mental health

• Given the importance of cholesterol for mental health, getting a sufficient amount of saturated fats is important for mental health Shaw, W. (2016). 7^th Annual Integrative Medicine for Mental Health Conference, Washington DC., Sánchez-Villegas, A., Verberne, L., De Irala, J., Ruíz-Canela, M., Toledo, E., Serra-Majem, L. and Martínez-González, M. (2011). Dietary fat intake and the risk of depression: the SUN Project. [online] PLoS One, 6 (1), e16268. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21298116 [accessed 20 Sep. 2026].
• You get 60% of your daily calories from healthy fats, including some saturated fats. 25% of this is cholesterol (which you get from saturated fat) which is necessary for good brain function
• It is well known that unsaturated fatty acids are important for normal brain and nerve function, however it is actually saturated fatty acids that are most essential
• Saturated fats can boost immunity by helping white blood cells to destroy bacteria and other pathogens, and a strong immune system helps to support optimal mental health
• Saturated fats can increase testosterone levels which aids tissue repair as well as increasing libido English, N. (2013). Everyone Was Wrong: Saturated Fat Can Be Good for You. [online] Greatist. Available at: https://greatist.com/health/saturated-fat-healthy [accessed 20 Sep. 2026]. 

Role of cholesterol in mental health

Cholesterol is a saturated fat, a steroid metabolite found in body cells and transported through the bloodstream.

The brain has a high cholesterol content: 25% of total body cholesterol resides in the brainWuerch, E.C. and Yong, V.W. (2025) ‘Cholesterol in the CNS: functions, recycling and remyelination’, Journal of Neuroinflammation

Excessive levels of blood cholesterol:

• Can lead to heart disease an inflammation (which itself contributes to depression)Molero, P., De Lorenzi, F., Gędek, A., Strater, C., Popescu, E., Ortuño, F., Van Der Does, W., Martínez-González, M.A. and Molendijk, M.L. (2025) ‘Diet quality and depression risk: a systematic review and meta-analysis of prospective studies’, Journal of Affective Disorders, 382, pp. 154–166.

Cholesterol that is too low:

• Can lead to mental health issues such as depression, aggression, violent behaviour, irritability, memory issues, addiction and suicideWu, S., Ding, Y., Wu, F., Xie, G., Hou, J. and Mao, P. (2016) ‘Serum lipid levels and suicidality: a meta-analysis of 65 epidemiological studies’, Journal of Psychiatry and Neuroscience, 41(1), pp. 56–69.
• Cholesterol is essential to hormonal balance, which is essential to mental health
  • Sex hormones such as estrogen, progesterone and testosterone are made from cholesterol
  • Stress hormones such as cortisol and adrenaline are made from cholesterol
  • Cholesterol seems to help augment the function of oxytocin and the oxytocin receptor sitesGimpl, G. and Fahrenholz, F. (2001) ‘The Oxytocin Receptor System: Structure, Function, and Regulation’, Physiological Reviews, 81(2), pp. 629–683.
• Cholesterol maintains cell walls and helps cell membranes maintain their fluidity and permeability, thus allowing them to be flexible and communicative with each other, and so is important to all cells in the human body, including the brain
  • Without cholesterol, the signalling between your brain cells becomes slower and weaker, because cholesterol insulates the brain cells so that electrical signals can travel faster across your brainWuerch, E.C. and Yong, V.W. (2025) ‘Cholesterol in the CNS: functions, recycling and remyelination’, Journal of Neuroinflammation
• Cholesterol is involved in the production of bile acids for vitamin absorption – vitamins A, D, K
  • Cholesterol is vital in the production of vitamin D, and increased levels of vitamin D are associated with better mental and emotional health due in part to its importance for the production of the neurotransmitters dopamine, epinephrine, serotonin and norepinephrine which play a key role in mental healthPatrick, R.P. and Ames, B.N. (2015) ‘Vitamin D and the omega-3 fatty acids control serotonin synthesis and action, part 2: relevance for ADHD, bipolar disorder, schizophrenia, and impulsive behavior’, The FASEB Journal, 29(6), pp. 2207–2222.
• Cholesterol serves as a major part of the coating of nerve cells and is essential for the myelin sheathWuerch, E.C. and Yong, V.W. (2025) ‘Cholesterol in the CNS: functions, recycling and remyelination’, Journal of Neuroinflammation

Levels of cholesterol for mental health

• Minimum level: 160mg/dl
• Optimal level: 220mg/dl

Shaw, W. (2016). Annual Integrative Medicine for Mental Health Conference, Washington DC.

Role of monounsaturated fats for mental health

• Intake of monounsaturated fats is associated with reduced levels of depressionSánchez-Villegas, A., Verberne, L., De Irala, J., Ruíz-Canela, M., Toledo, E., Serra-Majem, L. and Martínez-González, M.A. (2011) ‘Dietary Fat Intake and the Risk of Depression: The SUN Project’, PLoS ONE
• Monounsaturated fats can help balance insulin levels and blood sugar (2017). Dietary fats: Know which types to choose. [online] Mayo Clinic. Available at: http://www.mayoclinic.org/healthy-lifestyle/nutrition-and-healthy-eating/in-depth/fat/art-20045550 [accessed 20 Sep. 2026].
• Monounsaturated fats can help protect the brain against free radical damage
  • All lipids can be oxidized by free radicals but the polyunsaturated fatty acids are more susceptible to oxidation than monounsaturated fatty acids
  • An increased monounsaturated fats to polyunsaturated fats ratio may reduce oxidative stress and damage, while high levels of polyunsaturated fatty acids can increase oxidative damage
  • Oxidation of fatty acids leads to further free radical production

Essential fatty acids are polyunsaturated fats (PUFAs) that must be obtained from the diet, as they cannot be manufactured by the body. As long as these fats are not rancid or destroyed by heat, they are considered “good fats” because they are healthy.

In humans there are two types: linoleic and alpha linolenic acids, both Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids (PUFAs), which are building blocks for Omega 6 and Omega 3 fatty acids, which are both essential for human health.

They are contained in the following types of foods:

• Olive oil
• Fish oil
• Flax & hemp seed oil
• Fats in avocados
• Fats in nuts and seeds
• Evening primrose oil
• Starflower oil (borage oil)
• Black seed oil

The principal sources of omega-3 are fish and seafood, but also seeds and nuts, and omega-6 is plant oils

Role of EFAs in mental health

• EFAs have a protective action on the brain, by inhibiting the production of brain-damaging free radicals
• EFAs control the signalling between nerve cells which controls moodBazinet, R.P. and Layé, S. (2014) ‘Polyunsaturated fatty acids and their metabolites in brain function and disease’, Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 15(12), pp. 771–785.
  • Fatty acid composition of nerve cells declines with ageing, but dietary supplementation improves the conduction of signals across nerve cells, which can help prevent neurodegeneration, protect nerve cells, and improve brain functionBazinet, R.P. and Layé, S. (2014) ‘Polyunsaturated fatty acids and their metabolites in brain function and disease’, Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 15(12), pp. 771–785.
  • Fatty acids are key constituents of all cell membranes and myelin sheaths surrounding nerves
  • Myelin is a fatty white layer around the nerve cells, like the foam insulating layer that surrounds pipes in homes
  • Without this insulation nerves cannot conduct impulsesBazinet, R.P. and Layé, S. (2014) ‘Polyunsaturated fatty acids and their metabolites in brain function and disease’, Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 15(12), pp. 771–785.
• EFAs are essential to the process which allows nutrients into the cells, and toxins and waste products out
• Essential fatty acids are necessary for the proper functioning of all hormones Gluck, M. and Edgson, V. (2010). It Must Be My Hormones. Camberwell, Vic.: Penguin Group (Australia), p. 126.
• Increasing your EFAs can help alleviate symptoms of depression, anxiety, and insomnia

However PUFAs are not all good:

• PUFAs are essential for the production of prostaglandins
• Prostaglandins are lipid rich compounds with hormone-like effects on various organs of the body – causing uterine contractions as well as contributing to atherosclerosis and inflammationRicciotti, E. and FitzGerald, G.A. (2011) ‘Prostaglandins and Inflammation’, Arteriosclerosis, Thrombosis, and Vascular Biology, 31(5), pp. 986–1000.
• Certain PUFAs DHA and EPA may increase brain oxidative stressYang, B., Fritsche, K.L., Beversdorf, D.Q., Gu, Z., Lee, J.C., Folk, W.R., Greenlief, C.M. and Sun, G.Y. (2019) ‘Yin-Yang Mechanisms Regulating Lipid Peroxidation of Docosahexaenoic Acid and Arachidonic Acid in the Central Nervous System’, Frontiers in Neurology.

A deficiency of PUFAs, and especially in Omega 3 and Omega 6 fatty acids can contribute to the following mental health problems:

• Depression, including perinatal depression and bipolar disorderGrosso, G., Pajak, A., Marventano, S., Castellano, S., Galvano, F., Bucolo, C., Drago, F. and Caraci, F. (2014) ‘Role of Omega-3 Fatty Acids in the Treatment of Depressive Disorders: A Comprehensive Meta-Analysis of Randomized Clinical Trials’, PLOS ONE
• Potentially implicated in psychosis and schizophrenia Vijayakumar, N., Bartholomeusz, C., Whitford, T., Hermens, D., Nelson, B., Rice, S., Whittle, S., Pantelis, C., McGorry, P., Schäfer, M. and Amminger, G. (2016). White matter integrity in individuals at ultra-high risk for psychosis: a systematic review and discussion of the role of polyunsaturated fatty acids. [online] BMC Psychiatry, 16 (1), p. 287. Available at: https://bmcpsychiatry.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12888-016-0932-4 [accessed 20 Sep. 2026]. 
• Problems with brain development, cognition and behaviour including ADHD, dyspraxia, dyslexiaRichardson, A.J. (2006) ‘Omega-3 fatty acids in ADHD and related neurodevelopmental disorders’, International Review of Psychiatry
• EFAs are necessary for the construction and maintenance of all cells in the body and brainBazinet, R.P. and Layé, S. (2014) ‘Polyunsaturated fatty acids and their metabolites in brain function and disease’, Nature Reviews Neuroscience
• EFAs are an essential constituent of the myelin sheath – sheaths surrounding the nerve cells ensuring they can work rapidly and effectively
• EFAs are a key constituent of prostaglandins – a group of physiologically active lipid compounds having diverse hormone-like effects in animalsRicciotti, E. and FitzGerald, G.A. (2011) ‘Prostaglandins and Inflammation’, Arteriosclerosis, Thrombosis, and Vascular Biology
• EPA and DHA (forms of EFAs) are key building blocks for babies’ brains, are essential for brain development and reducing inflammation

Omega 3s are EFAs, and are essential to brain health and function.

Omega-3 fatty acids are fats which come in three types that have slightly different structures: EPA (eicosapentaenoic acid), DHA (docosahexaenoic acid) and ALA (alpha-linolenic acid).

Role of Omega 3s in mental health

We are currently the third or fourth generation with inadequate DHA intakes, and experts now think this could have a lot to do with the increasing rates of neurological and mental health problems Holford, P. (2004). Patrick Holford’s New Optimum Nutrition Bible. London: Piatkus, p. 40..

• Both EPA and DHA are important for motor function, learning and behaviour
  • Low levels are associated with ADHD/dyspraxia and reduced reading skills and behaviour improvement in school age children
• Omega 3 important for mood and depressionGrosso, G., Pajak, A., Marventano, S., Castellano, S., Galvano, F., Bucolo, C., Drago, F. and Caraci, F. (2014) ‘Role of Omega-3 Fatty Acids in the Treatment of Depressive Disorders: A Comprehensive Meta-Analysis of Randomized Clinical Trials’, PLOS ONE
• Neuropsychiatric disorders such as mood and social disorders may be exacerbated by low intake of maternal and early life omega 3 polyunsaturated fatty acidsHibbeln, J.R., Davis, J.M., Steer, C., Emmett, P., Rogers, I., Williams, C. and Golding, J. (2007) ‘Maternal seafood consumption in pregnancy and neurodevelopmental outcomes in childhood (ALSPAC study): an observational cohort study’, The Lancet
• Pregnant and breastfeeding mothers must make sure to get enough EPA and DHA which are key building blocks for a baby’s brain
• DHA is essential for brain development including eyesight development
• DHA supplementation has been shown to reduce aggressive behaviourGesch, C.B., Hammond, S.M., Hampson, S.E., Eves, A. and Crowder, M.J. (2002) ‘Influence of supplementary vitamins, minerals and essential fatty acids on the antisocial behaviour of young adult prisoners’, British Journal of Psychiatry
• Twenty-four week supplementation with 900 mg/d DHA improved learning and memory function in age-related cognitive declineYurko-Mauro, K., McCarthy, D., Rom, D. et al. (2010) ‘Beneficial effects of docosahexaenoic acid on cognition in age-related cognitive decline’, Alzheimer’s & Dementia

Low Omega 3 has been shown to correlate with:

• Depression, bipolar, suicide
  • Low levels of omega-3, especially EPA, are associated with depression, bipolar disorder, self-harm/para suicide, suicide, homicide, poor impulse control and aggressionHibbeln, J.R. (1998) ‘Fish consumption and major depression’, The Lancet
  • EPA in particular (rather than DHA), has been shown to have a positive impact on depression Hallahan, B., Ryan, T., Hibbeln, J., Murray, I., Glynn, S., Ramsden, C., SanGiovanni, J. and Davis, J. (2016). Efficacy of omega-3 highly unsaturated fatty acids in the treatment of depression. [online] The British Journal of Psychiatry 209 (3), pp. 192-201. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27103682 [accessed 20 Sep. 2026].
  • In countries where people eat between a pound and a pound and a half of seafood per week, men and women have significantly lower rates of major depression and suicide than in countries where people eat less than that amount Tanskanen, A., Hibbeln, J., Tuomilehto, J., Uutela, A., Haukkala, A., Viinamäki, H., Lehtonen, J. and Vartiainen, E. (2001). Fish consumption and depressive symptoms in the general population in Finland. [online] Psychiatric Services, 52 (4), pp. 529-31. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11274502 [accessed 20 Sep. 2026].
  • Fish consumption impacted rates of postpartum depression in a study comparing rates of PPD in 22 countries Kendall-Tackett, K. (2016). Can Fats Make You Happy? [online] Uppity Science Chick. Available at: http://www.uppitysciencechick.com/can_fats_make_you_happy.pdf [accessed 20 Sep. 2026].
  • Substantially improve mood in drug-resistant depressed patients Holford, P. (2004). Patrick Holford’s New Optimum Nutrition Bible. London: Piatkus, p. 7.
• Anxiety and lack of resilience to stress
  • A diet rich in omega 3s has been shown to help improve stress resilience, reduce anxiety, and can prevent adrenal activation from mental stress, and reduce the stress hormone cortisol Delarue, J., Matzinger, O., Binnert, C., Schneiter, P., Chioléro, R. and Tappy, L. (2003). Fish oil prevents the adrenal activation elicited by mental stress in healthy men. [online] Diabetes & metabolism, 29 (3), pp. 289-95. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12909818 [accessed 20 Sep. 2026]., Gottfried, S. (2013). The Hormone Cure. New York, NY: Scribner, p. 104.
  • A diet rich in omega 3s has been shown to influence cardiac variability, and hence cardiac coherence, both of which are important for mental health
• Psychosis
  • Low serum levels of omega 3s have been correlated with psychotic disorders such as schizophreniaAkter, K., Gallo, D.A., Martin, S.A., Myronyuk, N., Roberts, R.T., Stercula, K. and Raffa, R.B. (2012) ‘A review of the possible role of the essential fatty acids and fish oils in the aetiology, prevention or pharmacotherapy of schizophrenia’, Journal of Clinical Pharmacy and Therapeutics
• Cognitive impairment
  • Abnormally low blood levels of the omega-3 essential fatty acid DHA may be an indicator of the severity of cognitive impairment in malnourished or demented individuals Lake, J. (2009). Integrative Mental Health Care. New York: W.W. Norton & Co., p. 238.
• Inflammation
  • Low levels of Omega 3s are correlated with greater levels of inflammationCalder, P.C. (2017) ‘Omega-3 fatty acids and inflammatory processes: from molecules to man’, Biochemical Society Transactions

Cause of deficiency in Omega 3

Modern Western diets and agriculture:

• Tend to be poor in Omega 3s, as they are high in omega 6, transfats, hydrogenated vegetable oils and processed foods
• During evolution Omega-3s were found in all foods such as consumed-meat, wild plants, eggs, nuts, fish and berriesSimopoulos, A.P. (2006) ‘Evolutionary aspects of diet, the omega-6/omega-3 ratio and genetic variation: nutritional implications for chronic diseases’, Biomedicine & Pharmacotherapy, 60(9), pp. 502–507.,however due to modern industrial diets and agricultural methods, levels of Omega-3s in most Western diets have plummeted
• Processing (heating, processing, cooking, etc.) damages omega 3s which are very fragile, hence there has been a huge decline in omega 3s in our modern diets
• Vegetarian and vegan diets can be poor in Omega 3s Scott, T. and Keith, L. (May 2015). Anxiety, Depression and the Vegetarian Diet. [online] The Anxiety Summit, Season 3. Available at: http://season3.theanxietysummit.com/.

The brain has the highest proportion of Omega 6 compared to other body tissues

Omega 6 fatty acids include:

• LA (linolenic acid)
• AA (arachidonic acid)
• Gamma-Linolenic Acid (GLA)
• Adrenic Acid (AdA)

Role of omega 6 in mental health

• High intake of LA fatty acids is associated with depression, inflammation, heart disease and cancer
• Higher levels of AA and AdA are associated with greater likelihood of suicide risk and major depression among pregnant womenIzumi, T., Kanehisa, M., Terao, T. et al. (2022) ‘Naturally absorbed lithium may prevent suicide attempts and deliberate self-harm while eicosapentaenoic acid may prevent deliberate self-harm and arachidonic acid may be a risk factor for deliberate self-harm’, Frontiers in Psychiatry
• Omega 6 taken in supplement form of GLA has been shown to
  • Relieve symptoms of schizophrenia
  • Improve memory and relieve symptoms of withdrawal in the diet of alcoholics
  • Improve memory and cognitive function in patients with Alzheimer’s
  • Improve symptoms of PMS

  Holford, P. (2004). Patrick Holford’s New Optimum Nutrition Bible. London: Piatkus, pp. 37-8., Patterson, E., Wall, R., Fitzgerald, G.F., Ross, R.P. and Stanton, C. (2012). Health implications of high dietary omega-6 polyunsaturated fatty acids. [online] Journal of Nutrition and Metabolism, 12, 539426. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22570770 [accessed 20 Sep. 2026].

Ratio between Omega 3s and Omega 6s

What is important however is not the total amount of Omega 6, but rather the ratio of Omega 6 to Omega 3.

Western diets tend to favour Omega 6, which can be found in vegetable oils, and this tips the ratio too far towards Omega 6, to the detriment of Omega 3s.

Most plant products are really high in Omega 6s but not in Omega 3s. A diet too high in Omega 6 and too low in Omega 3 has been heavily implicated in anxiety, depression and mental illnessNaderlou, H., Abedimanesh, N., Mohiti, S., Asghari-Jafarabadi, M., Torabi, M.B. and Khajevand, M. (2026) ‘Association between omega-6 and omega-3 fatty acids intake, body mass index and depression in young Iranian adults: a cross sectional study’, Journal of Health, Population, and Nutrition

An imbalance between Omega 6 and Omega 3 can cause:

• Inflammation, through an overproduction of pro-inflammatory cytokines
• DepressionPatrick, R.P. and Ames, B.N. (2015) ‘Vitamin D and the omega-3 fatty acids control serotonin synthesis and action, part 2: relevance for ADHD, bipolar disorder, schizophrenia, and impulsive behavior’, The FASEB Journal
• Anxiety Scott, T. and Keith, L. (May 2015). Anxiety, Depression and the Vegetarian Diet. [online] The Anxiety Summit, Season 3. Available at: http://season3.theanxietysummit.com/.

A ratio of 1:1 Omega 3 to Omega 6 is ideal, and reflects the ratio in ancient and traditional dietsNaderlou, H., Abedimanesh, N., Mohiti, S., Asghari-Jafarabadi, M., Torabi, M.B. and Khajevand, M. (2026) ‘Association between omega-6 and omega-3 fatty acids intake, body mass index and depression in young Iranian adults: a cross sectional study’, Journal of Health, Population, and Nutrition

In our current Western diets, the ratio is now about 20:1 Omega 6 to Omega 3. This change is due to changes in dietary habits, processed foods, and agricultural practices such as feeding live stock Omega 6 rich grainsSheppard, K.W. and Cheatham, C.L. (2018) ‘Omega-6/omega-3 fatty acid intake of children and older adults in the U.S.: dietary intake in comparison to current dietary recommendations and the Healthy Eating Index’, Lipids in Health and Disease

Role of phospholipids in mental health

• Phospholipids help make up the myelin sheath which protects nerves and ensures the smooth transmission of signals to the brain
• Phospholipids are precursors to acetylcholine, the ‘memory’ neurotransmitter
• Phospholipids can help to boost mood, memory and cognition
• Phospholipids are essential for supporting methylation
• Phospholipids help keep homocysteine in check, and high homocysteine has been linked with a number of degenerative diseases, including Alzheimer’s

Phosphatidylcholine

• Necessary for the production of the neurotransmitter acetylcholine
  • Acetylcholine is involved in learning and memory, and supplementing has been shown to improve memory, learning ability, and improving neural connectionsBlusztajn, J.K., Slack, B.E. and Mellott, T.J. (2017) ‘Neuroprotective Actions of Dietary Choline’, Nutrients
• Phosphatidylcholine balances feelings of arousal versus feelings of calm Gluck, M. and Edgson, V. (2010). It Must Be My Hormones. Camberwell, Vic.: Penguin Group (Australia), p. 83.
• Phosphatidylcholine improves liver function, thus aiding detoxificationSedhom, S.S., El Wakeel, L.M., Barakat, E.M.F. et al. (2025) ‘The impact of choline supplementation on oxidative stress and clinical outcomes among patients with non-alcoholic fatty liver disease: a randomized controlled study’, Therapeutic Advances in Chronic Disease

Phosphatidylserine

• Phosphatidylserine is a phospholipid which is an essential component of nerve cell membranes, protecting brain cells and helping them to communicate
• Phosphatidylserine has been shown to boosts memory and cognitive function, and has been shown to be helpful with dementia symptomsDuan, H., Xu, N., Yang, T. et al. (2025) ‘Effects of a food supplement containing phosphatidylserine on cognitive function in Chinese older adults with mild cognitive impairment: A randomized double-blind, placebo-controlled trial’, Journal of Affective Disorders, 369, pp. 35–42.
• Phosphatidylserine been shown to improve depressive symptoms and seasonal affective disorderKomori, T. (2015) ‘The effects of phosphatidylserine and omega-3 fatty acid-containing supplement on late life depression’, Mental Illness
• Phosphatidylserine been shown to lower cortisol and reduce the influence of stress on the brain
  • Oral supplementation with phosphatidylserine/phosphatidic acid (PAS)-400mg of each can normalize the hyper-response of the HPA axis to acute stressHellhammer, J., Fries, E., Buss, C. et al. (2004) ‘Effects of Soy Lecithin Phosphatidic Acid and Phosphatidylserine Complex (PAS) on the Endocrine and Psychological Responses to Mental Stress’, Stress, 7(2), pp. 119–126

DMAE

• Necessary to synthesise phosphatidylcholine in the brain
• Supports the production of acetylcholine, the amino acid implicated in memory
• DMAE has been shown to help with learning problems, Attention Deficit Disorder, memory and behavior problems, reduce anxiety, calm the mind, improve alertness, boost mood and energy levels, and improve concentration and learning Holford, P. (2004). Patrick Holford’s New Optimum Nutrition Bible. London: Piatkus, pp. 46-7.

It’s easier for DMAE to cross the blood-brain barrier than it is for phosphatidylcholine Holford, P. (2004). Patrick Holford’s New Optimum Nutrition Bible. London: Piatkus, p. 46..