Imbalances in minerals

Zinc deficiency is one of the most common nutritional deficiencies, and yet zinc is one of the most important nutrients for mental healthDavarinejad, O., Nasseri, Z. and Mansouri, B. (2025) ‘Association between serum levels of essential elements (copper, zinc, and iron) and major depressive disorder: a systematic review and meta-analysis’, Reviews on Environmental Health, 41(1), pp. 43–55.

• Zinc has an important modulatory effect on the neurochemical processes involved in mental health, and supplementation with zinc shows beneficial effects across a range of mental health problemsDavarinejad, O., Nasseri, Z. and Mansouri, B. (2025) ‘Association between serum levels of essential elements (copper, zinc, and iron) and major depressive disorder: a systematic review and meta-analysis’, Reviews on Environmental Health, 41(1), pp. 43–55.
• Zinc helps with the digestion and absorption of nutrients, which is crucial to making healthy hormones and neurotransmitters – both keys to mental health
  • Zinc helps with the synthesis of enzymes required to digest fats, carbohydrates and proteins
  • It aids the production of hydrochloric acid for digestion
• Zinc supports the conversion of omega 3 and omega 6 into prostaglandins, which are involved in the experience of pain, and in inflammatory processes, both of which play a role in various mental health conditionsRicciotti, E. and FitzGerald, G.A. (2011) ‘Prostaglandins and Inflammation’, Arteriosclerosis, Thrombosis, and Vascular Biology, 31(5), pp. 986–1000.
• Zinc supports the synthesis of key neurotransmitters
  • Serotonin and melatonin, both of which are key for sleep, mood and appetite
  • GABA, the calming and focus neurotransmitterAndersen, J.V. and Schousboe, A. (2023) ‘Milestone Review: Metabolic dynamics of glutamate and GABA mediated neurotransmission — The essential roles of astrocytes’, Journal of Neurochemistry, 166(2), pp. 109–137.
• Zinc has an impact on hormones
  • Zinc helps with oxytocin, making our cells more receptive to this important love and bonding hormone/neurotransmitterPark, J. and Heffern, M.C. (2026) ‘Metal Modulation of Oxytocin Structure, Function, and Receptor Interactions’, European Journal of Inorganic Chemistry
  • Zinc also boosts estrogen and also progesterone levels
• Zinc may also be important for maintaining attention and processing auditory informationTalebi, S., Miraghajani, M., Ghavami, A. and Mohammadi, H. (2021) ‘The effect of zinc supplementation in children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: A systematic review and dose-response meta-analysis of randomized clinical trials’, Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition, 62(32), pp. 9093–9102.
• Zinc can help with memory as it facilitates communication between neurons in the hippocampus (the brain’s learning and memory centre)

• Depression
• Post partum issues
  • Several research papers have shown that women have very low levels of zinc and B6 after giving birth, probably because these nutrients are passed through the placenta to the baby several days before birth in order to boost the baby’s immune system Gluck, M. and Edgson, V. (2010). It Must Be My Hormones. Camberwell, Vic.: Penguin Group (Australia), p. 123.
• Poor concentration and attention
• Poor memory
• Alzheimer’s and dementia
  • Low serum zinc levels may result in accelerated formation of amyloid plaques
• Anxiety
• Hyperactivity
• Autism
• ADD
• Anorexia
• Psychotic symptoms and bipolar symptoms
• Sleep issues
• Hormonal imbalances such as low testosterone
• Low libido

Grønli, O., Kvamme, J. M., Friborg, O. and Wynn, R. (2013). Zinc Deficiency Is Common in Several Psychiatric Disorders. [online] PLoS One, 8 (12), e82793. Available at: http://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0082793 [accessed 20 Sep. 2026].

• Pesticides: foods sprayed with the pesticide glyphosate (Roundup) have 50% lower levels of zinc
• Excessive copper
  • Most people have too much copper in their diets
  • Zinc and copper compete for the same protein binding site, so if you’re ingesting too much copper, or taking a multivitamin with copper at the same time as a zinc supplement, they’ll compete for absorption
• Copper isn’t the only nutrient that competes with zinc: Vitamin B9, folate, Calcium, Iron and Magnesium do as well Scott, T., Calton, M. and Calton, J. (May 2015). Micronutrients for Eliminating Anxiety. [online] The Anxiety Summit, Season 3. Available at: http://season3.theanxietysummit.com/
• Depression, schizophrenia, anxiety
• Stress
• Frequent alcohol consumption
• Blood sugar problems
• Genetic predisposition
• Low zinc in diet
• Digestion and absorption issues
• Drinking tea or coffee with meals
• Medical drugs
• Illness or infection
• Vitamin B6 deficiency
• Excessive sweating
• Frequent ejaculation in males
• Phytic acid
  • Present in grains, beans and nuts, can limit the body’s uptake of zinc
  • Soaking grains and beans for 8-12 hours before consumption can reduce the amount of phytic acid

• The most reliable test is a blood test for plasma zinc, especially if combined with metallothionein studies (Acumen)
• It is also possible to do a urine or hair analysis, although these are more controversial and possibly less reliable
• Testing for blood levels of zinc can provide useful diagnostic information, especially when there is a history of alcohol abuse or poor nutrition

Magnesium helps with stress management by regulating brain signals (neurotransmission) and hormones:

• Magnesium is an essential cofactor needed for the binding of serotonin to its receptor, and is essential for serotonin production, modulating its pathway Ruljancic, N., Mihanovic, M., Cepelak, I., Bakliza, A. and Curkovic, K. D. (2013). Platelet serotonin and magnesium concentrations in suicidal and non-suicidal depressed patients. [online] Magnesium Research, 26 (1), pp. 9–17. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23614979 [accessed 20 Sep. 2026].
• Magnesium modulates GABA transmission
• Magnesium is required for energy production and the nervous system Talbott, S. (2007). The Cortisol Connection. Alameda, CA: Hunter House, p. 187.
• Supplementing magnesium has been shown to help patients with depression, suicidal thoughts, anxiety, irritability, insomnia, drug abuse and short term memory loss Holford, P. (2004). Patrick Holford’s New Optimum Nutrition Bible. London: Piatkus, p. 66.
• Magnesium can enhance relaxation and lower stress levels
• Magnesium (in combination with other nutrients) has been shown to help reduce symptoms of autism and hyperactivity in children Holford, P. (2004). Patrick Holford’s New Optimum Nutrition Bible. London: Piatkus, p. 66.
• Magnesium increases calcium absorption, and calcium is also important for calming the nervous system  Talbott, S. (2007). The Cortisol Connection. Alameda, CA: Hunter House, p. 187.

• Depression
• Suicidal thoughts
• Stress
• Anxiety
• Exhaustion
• Hyperactivity
• Irritability
• Insomnia
• Addiction
• Poor memory
• Poor concentration and attention

Serefko, A., Szopa, A. and Poleszak, E. (2016) ‘Magnesium and depression’, Magnesium Research, 29(3), pp. 112–119.

In children, magnesium deficiency is associated with:

• ADHD
• Autism
• Depression

Dean, C. (2007). The Magnesium Miracle. New York: Ballantine Books, p. 20, p. 55., Greenblatt, J. (2011). The Breakthrough Depression Solution. North Branch, MN: Sunrise River Press, p. 133.

• Digestion and absorption issues such as leaky gut and IBS
• Stress
  • Stress can deplete the body’s store of magnesium
• Taking psychiatric medication
  • Psychotropic drugs can further reduce levels of magnesium and calcium
• Illness or injury

Dean, C. (2007). The Magnesium Miracle. New York: Ballantine Books, p. 51., Holford, P. (2004). Patrick Holford’s New Optimum Nutrition Bible. London: Piatkus, p. 66.

• Calcium is key for brain and nerve function, and it is important for mental health, especially in terms of
  • Regulating mood (reducing mood swings)
  • Reducing anxiety and calming the nervous systemRobinson, J., Ferreira, A., Iacovou, M. and Kellow, N.J. (2025) ‘Effect of nutritional interventions on the psychological symptoms of premenstrual syndrome in women of reproductive age: a systematic review of randomized controlled trials’, Nutrition Reviews, 83(2), pp. 280–306.
• Higher levels of calcium have been shown to reduce depressive symptomsRobinson, J., Ferreira, A., Iacovou, M. and Kellow, N.J. (2025) ‘Effect of nutritional interventions on the psychological symptoms of premenstrual syndrome in women of reproductive age: a systematic review of randomized controlled trials’, Nutrition Reviews, 83(2), pp. 280–306.

• Mood swings
• Depression
• Stress, anxiety and panic
• Insomnia
• Irritability
• Hyperactivity
• Cognitive impairment

Robinson, J., Ferreira, A., Iacovou, M. and Kellow, N.J. (2025) ‘Effect of nutritional interventions on the psychological symptoms of premenstrual syndrome in women of reproductive age: a systematic review of randomized controlled trials’, Nutrition Reviews, 83(2), pp. 280–306.

• Lack of calcium in the diet
• Digestion and absorption issues
  • Gut issues
  • Eating large amounts of foods that limit the absorption of calcium
    • Phytic acid in bran products and soya
    • Oxalates in certain vegetables including spinach and beets
• Vitamin D deficiency
  • Vitamin D is essential for maintaining adequate levels of calcium, and is the main cause of calcium deficiency
  • It is necessary for the absorption of calcium and it minimises calcium loss from the kidneys
• Some medications can lead to calcium deficiency Gröber, U. and Kisters, K. (2012). Influence of drugs on vitamin D and calcium metabolism. [online] Dermato-Endocrinology, 4 (2), pp. 158–166. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3427195/ [accessed 20 Sep. 2026].

• Since 99% of calcium is stored in the bones, it can be difficult to get an accurate urine or blood test results for calcium, although these tests are available
• A bone density test can be done to assess how much calcium is in the bones

• A deficiency in iron leads to a decrease in oxygen, which can lead to fatigue, lowered immunity, and mental health issues
• Iron plays a key role in brain function and deficiency of iron has been implicated in various cognitive, motor and psychiatric disorders
• Recently a link has been established between iron deficiency and ADHDWang, Y., Huang, L., Zhang, L., Qu, Y. and Mu, D. (2017) ‘Iron Status in Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis’, PLOS ONE
• Iron is a cofactor for making serotonin and GABA, the neurotransmitters for mood, sleep, focus and calmFiani, D., Chahine, S., Zaboube, M., Solmi, M., Powers, J.M. and Calarge, C. (2025) ‘Psychiatric and cognitive outcomes of iron supplementation in non-anemic children, adolescents, and menstruating adults: A meta-analysis and systematic review’, Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews.

• Exhaustion
• Depression
• Irritability
• Headaches
• Dizziness
• Poor concentration and attention
• Low motivation
• Poor memory
• Brain fog
• Low libido
• Heart palpitations
• Anxiety

Fiani, D., Chahine, S., Zaboube, M., Solmi, M., Powers, J.M. and Calarge, C. (2025) ‘Psychiatric and cognitive outcomes of iron supplementation in non-anemic children, adolescents, and menstruating adults: A meta-analysis and systematic review’, Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews

Iron deficiency can be caused by:

• Lack of iron in the diet, as is more often seen in vegetarian or vegan diets
• Poor digestion and absorption of iron
  • Due to gut issues
  • Due to consumption of nutrients that block iron absorption, such as calcium
• Blood loss from heavy menstrual periods or other causes

• Blood test for iron or for ferritin (a protein that stores iron)
• Ferritin levels are the best measure of iron reserves in the body
• For optimal hormone balance, Dr. Sara Gottfried likes to see ferritin levels of around 80 in women
• According to the Mayo Clinic, optimal ferritin levels are:
  • 24 to 336 nanograms per milliliter in men
  • 11 to 307 nanograms per milliliter in women

(2017). Ferritin test. [online] Mayo Clinic. Available at: http://www.mayoclinic.org/tests-procedures/ferritin-test/basics/results/prc-20014449 [accessed 20 Sep. 2026].

Manganese is an important antioxidant that protects brain areas, in particular the hippocampus, from free radical damage.

In addition, manganese enzyme systems are important in depression, and reduced enzyme levels are seen in depressed patients.

Manganese can cause mental health issues when it is too high, as well as too low.

Manganese deficiency can contribute to

• Psychotic episodes
• Over-stimulation of the nervous system
• Insomnia
• Restlessness
• Fits and convulsions

Manganese excess can contribute to

• When inhaled, manganese can be toxic to the brain and gives rise to ‘manganism’
  • In the early stages of manganism there is anxiety and irritability, which can eventually lead to Parkinson’s disease-like syndrome with continued exposure
• There is also a link between high levels of manganese and cognitive impairment Młyniec, K., Gaweł, M., Doboszewska, U., Starowicz, G., Pytka, K., Davies, C. L. and Budziszewska, B. (2015). Essential elements in depression and anxiety. Part II. [online] Pharmacological Reports, 67 (2), pp. 187–94. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25712638 [accessed 20 Sep. 2026].
• High levels of manganese cause dysregulation of two neurotransmitters: glutamate and GABA
• Alterations of glutamate and GABA are seen in anxiety disorders and depression, both of which are seen in manganism
• Nervous disorders and psychosis (however, this is very rare)
• Anxiety
• Depression

• Selenium has been shown to help with mood problems
  • Selenium has a significant modulatory effect on dopamine, which is involved in controlling moodWang, N., Wang, X., Tan, B. et al. (2022) ‘The role of selenium in depression: a systematic review and meta-analysis of human observational and interventional studies’, Scientific Reports
  • Selenium has been shown to improve mood and well being in selenium deficient peopleNoormohammadi, M., Etesam, F., Amini, A., Khosravian Dehkordi, P., Mohammadzadeh, M. and Shidfar, F. (2025) ‘Impact of Nano-Selenium supplementation on the JAK/STAT signaling pathway in major depressive disorder: a Triple-Blind, randomized controlled trial’, BMC Psychiatry
• Selenium has been shown to help with anxietyWang, N., Wang, X., Tan, B. et al. (2022) ‘The role of selenium in depression: a systematic review and meta-analysis of human observational and interventional studies’, Scientific Reports
• Selenium is essential for thyroid hormone balance and an imbalance in thyroid hormone can lead to mental health issues such as depression.

Selenium deficiency can contribute to

• Anxiety
• Depression
• Irritability
• Alzheimer’s disease
• Cognitive decline

Wang, N., Wang, X., Tan, B. et al. (2022) ‘The role of selenium in depression: a systematic review and meta-analysis of human observational and interventional studies’, Scientific Reports

Chromium is important for mood, anxiety levels and motivation:

• It directly enhances serotonin activity
• It may have a downstream effect on dopamine
• The serotonin, dopamine and insulin pathways are all involved in control of food intake, but also in mood, anxiety levels, and motivation

A chromium deficiency can make it harder to balance blood sugar levels Talbott, S. (2007). The Cortisol Connection. Alameda, CA: Hunter House, p. 116. which can cause:

• Unstable moods
• Anxiety
• Irritability
• Poor concentration
• Poor memory

• Blood sugar imbalances
• Anxiety
• Depression
• Sugar cravings
• Exhaustion
• Emotional hypersensitivity
• Depressive symptoms before the age of 30

Li, X., Xia, X., Jiang, B., Yao, Y., Ding, F. and Qin, S. (2024) ‘Higher serum chromium level may be associated with the presentation of depression in patients with metabolic dysfunction-associated fatty liver disease: evidence from NHANES survey’, Frontiers in Psychiatry

A deficiency of iodine can lead to hypothyroidism, which can cause lethargy and exhaustion, depression and low mood, poor memory and concentration, etc.Aarsland, T.E., Aakre, I., Stea, T.H., Henjum, S., Markhus, M.W., Strand, T.A., Dahl, L., Korevaar, T.I.M., Bakken, K.S. and Sleire, S.N. (2025) ‘Association of Mild-to-Moderate Iodine Deficiency With Thyroid Function—A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis’, Advances in Nutrition

A deficiency in phosphorus can cause:

• Anxiety
• Irritability

Lake, J. (2009). Integrative Mental Health Care. New York: W.W. Norton & Co., p. 172.

• Copper is present in high concentrations in the brain
• It helps with energy production in the cells, by acting as a cofactor for mitochondria
• It is essential for enzyme production in the brain
  • The enzymes affect many aspects of brain function including neurotransmitter production-particularly dopamine and adrenaline
  • The enzymes also contribute to the myelin (outer coating) of nerves
  • Copper transports protein which transports copper to neural synapses, helps with nerve-to-nerve communication
• Copper helps with memory, learning ability and neural communication
• Copper protects the brain from oxidative damage
• Copper excess is implicated in Alzheimer’s disease
• There are genetic disorders affecting brain function due to copper transport problems in the brain

• Too much or too little copper can contribute to depression Greenblatt, J. (2011). The Breakthrough Depression Solution. North Branch, MN: Sunrise River Press, p. 130.
• Too little copper can contribute to
  • Confusion
  • Impaired coordination
• Too much copper can contribute to
  • Feelings of doom
  • Brain fog
  • Headaches/migraine
  • Mood swings
  • Depression
  • Paranoia
  • Despair
  • Poor concentration and attention
  • Poor memory

• The use of the oral contraceptive pill raises copper levels
• Stress raises copper levels 
• The prevalence of copper pipes in water supplies

Lithium has strong links to easing depression. In the UK, lithium carbonate is the medication most commonly used to treat bipolar disorder.

• Depression
• Mood swings
• Aggressive behaviour
• Suicidal tendencies

Liaugaudaite, V., Raskauskiene, N., Naginiene, R., Mickuviene, N. and Sher, L. (2022) ‘Association between lithium levels in drinking water and suicide rates: Role of affective disorders’, Journal of Affective Disorders